The sheer magnitude of illicit trade in African wildlife is staggering. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), it is estimated to generate between US$7 billion and US$23 billion annually, making it the fourth-most profitable illegal activity globally after narcotics, human trafficking, and weapons smuggling.[1]
Poaching in Africa, particularly of elephants and rhinos, has been devastating, pushing some populations to the brink of extinction and fundamentally altering ecosystems. The unsanitary conditions under which animals are captured, transported, and processed also increase the likelihood of zoonotic disease spillovers. While rhinos and elephants themselves are less likely to transmit pathogens, the broader illegal wildlife supply chain — often including bushmeat, exotic pets, and live animal trafficking, creates conditions ripe for emerging infectious diseases.
Large-scale seizures of ivory and rhino horn further highlight the involvement of organized criminal groups capable of moving substantial quantities of illicit goods across continents. Some countries have pushed back. China banned domestic ivory trade in 2018, and Vietnam has tightened laws on rhino horn possession. In other countries, however, law enforcement is chronically underfunded, border controls are lax, and the judiciary is often overwhelmed or compromised. Corruption in places such as Mozambique, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Sudan is pervasive, and bribery is rampant.[2]
The Ugly Underbelly: How High Demand and Poverty Lead To More Poaching
While precise figures are difficult to ascertain due to its clandestine nature, it is estimated that between 2012 and 2021, over 7.5 tonnes of illegal rhino horn were seized globally, demonstrating the significant volume of this trade.[3] High market prices, with ivory fetching thousands of dollars per kilogram, underscore the profitability that attracts sophisticated criminal networks.
At the core of the illegal trade lies sustained demand in consumer markets, primarily in East and Southeast Asia. Ivory is highly valued in countries like China, Vietnam, and Laos for its aesthetic and symbolic qualities, used in religious carvings, jewellery, and status objects displayed in homes or gifted to curry favour. Rhino horn, though scientifically proven to be pharmacologically inert (composed entirely of keratin), is still widely believed in some cultures to cure ailments ranging from fevers to cancer. In Vietnam, powdered rhino horn is sometimes mixed with alcohol and consumed as a supposed hangover cure or as a display of wealth among elites.[4]
On the supply side, economic desperation plays a critical role. In many African regions bordering national parks or protected wildlife reserves, communities suffer from high unemployment, lack of infrastructure, and limited access to education or healthcare. In these areas, poaching offers income opportunities that far exceed legal alternatives. For example, while a ranger might earn US$100–$200 per month, a single elephant tusk could be worth several thousand dollars on the black market.[5]
Criminal networks exploit these socio-economic disparities by recruiting impoverished locals to serve as guides, shooters, or transporters. These individuals often receive only a fraction of the final market value of the goods they help poach, while criminal syndicates capture the lion’s share of profits. Without viable livelihoods, many individuals view poaching as a rational economic decision, even in full awareness of its illegality and ecological cost.[6]
Smelling Weakness: How Transnational Cartels Exploit Weak Policing For Poaching
Weak government institutions compound the problem. Corruption is pervasive at multiple levels; rangers may tip off poachers, customs officials may overlook suspicious cargo, and prosecutors may be bribed to drop charges. Traffickers exploit these systemic weaknesses through bribery, intimidation, and forgery. Seizures often reveal well-organized logistical networks operating with insider assistance. For instance, large shipments of ivory and rhino horn intercepted in Asian ports have been traced back to containers that passed through multiple African borders unchecked, suggesting systemic failures or active collusion. In one case, dubbed the “Pemba cartel,” authorities from Kenya and Mozambique collaborated in 2021 to apprehend a notorious trafficker who had used bribes and political connections to smuggle ivory through the port of Pemba for years.[7]
As trafficking networks flourish, they further undermine governance structures. Corruption fuelled by wildlife profits erodes public trust and weakens the rule of law. In regions where officials benefit from illegal trade, enforcement becomes selective or non-existent, creating impunity for criminal actors. This dynamic fosters resentment among local populations and may even fuel cycles of instability, especially in post-conflict societies trying to rebuild state authority.
In some cases, wildlife trafficking becomes embedded in patronage networks, making it politically costly to dismantle. Officials may protect key traffickers in return for kickbacks or electoral support. Over time, this entrenchment of illicit economies reduces a state’s ability to exercise sovereign control over its territory, especially in remote, resource-rich areas.[8]
Sophisticated transnational syndicates are taking advantage of this weak governance, andhave diversified into wildlife due to its high profitability and relatively low risk of detection or prosecution. These groups often use the same smuggling routes, safe houses, and money-laundering channels, making wildlife trafficking deeply embedded in broader illicit economies.
In conflict-affected areas, the trade intersects with militancy and insurgency. The Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), once active in Uganda and the Central African Republic, was reportedly involved in ivory smuggling to fund weapons and operations. Similarly, Al-Shabaab, the Somalia-based jihadist group, has been linked to ivory trafficking through East African networks, reportedly receiving shipments from poachers in Kenya or southern Sudan in exchange for arms. These cases highlight how wildlife crime directly contributes to the financing of terrorism and insurgency, thus posing a threat not only to wildlife but to regional peace and counterterrorism efforts.[9]
Illegal Trade Touches All Parts of the Globe, Including The Gulf
While not primary source countries for African ivory and rhino horn, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states have been identified as significant transit points for these illegal commodities en route to markets in Asia. Airports in the region, such as those in Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Riyadh, and Muscat, have reported instances of wildlife trafficking seizures, indicating their role in the global supply chain. The region’s robust transportation and logistics infrastructure, while vital for legitimate trade, can unfortunately be exploited by traffickers.[10]
Furthermore, the GCC states are also a destination for the illegal pet trade, which impacts various species, including cheetahs. This highlights a different facet of the illicit wildlife trade that affects the region directly.[11]
However, there is also a growing recognition and proactive engagement from several entities within the GCC to combat this issue. For instance, Emirates SkyCargo has implemented stringent zero-tolerance policies against the illegal wildlife trade, including a complete ban on certain hunting trophies and enhanced screening protocols. They are also involved in initiatives like Project Vikela, which aims to use technology for detecting illegal wildlife products at airports. The UAE government, in collaboration with international partners like United for Wildlife, has been involved in developing toolkits to assist financial institutions in tackling illicit financial flows linked to wildlife trafficking. These efforts demonstrate a commitment to addressing the problem, particularly in disrupting transit routes and strengthening financial controls, although challenges remain in areas such as explicitly criminalizing all aspects of the trade chain and fully integrating wildlife crime into anti-money laundering frameworks across the region.[12]
Game Plan: How Local Communities and International Organizations Are Fighting Back
Efforts to combat the illicit ivory and rhino horn trade have intensified over the past decade. African governments have strengthened anti-poaching units, adopted tougher penalties, and utilized technology such as drones and GPS tracking, while international bodies like CITES, INTERPOL, and the UNODC have facilitated intelligence sharing and cross-border enforcement. Consumer countries such as China and Vietnam have introduced domestic bans and supported awareness campaigns aimed at reducing demand, with targeted messaging debunking the medicinal myths surrounding rhino horn and ivory’s status-symbol appeal.[13]
Community-based conservation programs have also proven critical, offering alternative livelihoods and empowering local populations to become active stewards of wildlife. A promising development is the rise of rewilding initiatives, which seek to restore elephant and rhino populations to areas where they were wiped out. Projects such as the reintroduction of black rhinos to Rwanda’s Akagera National Park and African Parks’ ambitious plan to rewild 2,000 white rhinos across protected landscapes illustrate a strategic shift from crisis response to ecological recovery. These efforts aim to rebuild population numbers and genetic diversity and provide a compelling counter-narrative to the destruction caused by the illegal wildlife trade.[14]
Disclaimer:
The views and opinions expressed in the INSIGHTS publication series are those of the individual contributors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of Rabdan Security & Defense Institute, its affiliated organizations, or any government entity. The content published is intended for informational purposes and reflects the personal perspectives of the authors on various security and defence-related topics.
[1] UNODC (2024) World Wildlife Crime Report 2024: Trafficking in Protected Species, Vienna: United Nations, World_Wildlife_Crime_Report_2024.pdf
[2] Gitau, Leah ‘The Dangers of Wildlife Poaching and Their Impact on the Animal and Human Population’, May 31, 2023, Action for Protection Animals Africa, The Dangers of Wildlife Poaching and Their Impact on the Animal and Human Population
[3] Wildlife Justice Commission ‘Rhino horn trafficking as a form of transnational organised crime 2012-2021: 2022 A Global Threat Assessment’ (Chapter 2: Criminal dynamics of
rhino horn trafficking), Rhino horn trafficking Report - Wildlife Justice Commission
[4] Vigne, Lucy and Esmond Martin, ‘The Ivory Trade of Laos: Now the Fastest Growing in the World’, Save the Elephants 2017, Nairobi, Kenya,2017-Vigne-Lao-Ivory-Report-web.pdf
[5] Penn State. "Lack of food -- not money -- drives poaching in East African national parks, study finds." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 25 September 2024. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/09/240925143909.htm
[6] Traffic.Org, ‘Nature crimes: the billion-dollar industry bankrolling global criminal networks’, Nature crimes: the billion-dollar industry bankrolling global criminal networks - TRAFFIC - The Wildlife Trade monitoring network
[7] Belecky, Mike et al, ‘Corrupting conservation: Assessing how corruption impacts Ranger work’, WWF, April 2021, Topic-Brief-Corrupting-conservation-Assessing-how-corruption-impacts-ranger-work.pdf
[8] OECD (2018), Strengthening Governance and Reducing Corruption Risks to Tackle Illegal Wildlife Trade: Lessons from East and Southern Africa, Illicit Trade, OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264306509-en
[9] Cakaj, Ledio (2015) ‘Tusk Wars Inside the LRA and the Bloody Business of Ivory’, The Enough Project, Tusk_Wars_10262015.pdf
[10] El Sayed, Nadine ‘Middle East major hub for wildlife trafficking’, Nature Middle East, September 26, 2018, Middle East major hub for wildlife trafficking - Features - Nature Middle East
[11] Bell, Jennifer ‘Cheetahs to chimps: Trafficked wildlife a growing ‘status symbol’ in GCC, experts say’, Al Arabiya, August 23, 2022,Cheetahs to chimps: Trafficked wildlife a growing ‘status symbol’ in GCC, experts say
[12] United for Wildlife, ‘Breaking the Supply Chain: How Emirates is Tackling Illegal Wildlife Trafficking – Sheikh Majid Al Mualla’, August 2023, Breaking the Supply Chain: How Emirates is Tackling Illegal Wildlife Trafficking - Sheikh Majid Al Mualla - United for Wildlife and Emirates Sky Cargo, ‘Combatting the Illegal Wildlife Trade: Emirates SkyCargo Fights to Keep Wildlife Wild’, March 3, 2025, Combatting the Illegal Wildlife Trade: Emirates SkyCargo Fights to Keep Wildlife Wild
[13] Dugbazah, Justina et al, ‘Combatting Poaching And Illegal Logging In Africa Through Conservation Technologies’, August 10, 2021, African Union Development Agency, Combatting Poaching And Illegal Logging In Africa Through Conservation Technologies | AUDA-NEPAD
[14] The Economic Times, ‘African Parks' bold move to save rhinos: Rewilding the world's largest rhino farm’, September 24, 2023, African Parks' bold move to save rhinos: Rewilding the world's largest rhino farm
