Introduction: From Concept to Commitment
In 2024, the United States Air Force (USAF) made a pivotal decision[i] — to field a sixth-generation crewed fighter, now designated the F-47, alongside a fleet of over 1,000 Collaborative Combat Aircraft (CCA). This marked a definitive shift toward Manned-Unmanned Teaming (MUM-T) as the cornerstone of future air combat, resolving years of uncertainty about the Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) programme. MUM-T has transitioned from conceptual ambition to operational doctrine, reshaping how airpower is designed and employed.
This decision sets a powerful precedent of embedding CCA and human-machine teaming at the heart of their next-generation force planning that other air forces are likely to follow. As CCA, along with their near synonymous counterparts, Remote Carriers (RCs) and Autonomous Collaborative Platforms (ACPs), become integral to air superiority, the issues of design, resilience, and interoperability will determine both military effectiveness and industrial viability. This INSIGHTS assesses the developments behind and implications of this strategic evolution, with a focus on operational frameworks and global force planning.
Air Superiority in Transition
Future wars will not afford uncontested skies, but while air superiority remains vital, its character is shifting and operational analysis and combat simulations[ii] are converging on a new paradigm. In high-threat environments characterised by mobile, networked, and long-range air defences, persistent and uncontested air dominance can no longer be assumed. Instead, air forces are increasingly focused on achieving temporary, localised windows of air superiority, aligned with specific missions and phases of joint operations. The war in Ukraine has highlighted[iii] both the consequences of failing to achieve air superiority and the challenges of operating without it, as mobile air defences on both sides have denied control of the skies. Temporary, localized air superiority through integrated air-ground operations[iv] that combine aircraft, drones, electronic warfare (EW), and long-range fires to break through, can shift lines and build momentum.
Next-generation manned fighters alone will not suffice[v]. Victory will hinge on integration with scalable, uncrewed systems like CCA, ACPs, and RCs. These platforms extend sensor reach, distribute and enhance lethality, boost survivability, and will become indispensable. Together, they enable enhanced contested capabilities including electronic attack, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR), suppression of enemy air defence (SEAD), close air support, targeting and strike, in environments where manned assets alone would be insufficient.
MUM-T: The Operational Core
MUM-T is not a steppingstone, it is the operational foundation of future combat. CCA do not replace pilots; they amplify human capabilities. Their integration[vi] enables disaggregated sensor-shooter architectures, increasing flexibility, reaction speed, and survivability.
Artificial Intelligence and machine learning are central[vii] to this model. They enable real-time sensor fusion, adaptive formation control, and dynamic targeting under contested conditions. Whether facing jamming, GPS denial, or mission ambiguity, AI provides the autonomy to execute tactical decisions within commander intent.
Still, full autonomy remains constrained by complexity and ethical considerations. MUM-T offers balance through scalable autonomy under human oversight. It preserves judgement and accountability while leveraging machine scale and speed, especially critical in degraded or denied conditions.
Resilience in a Broken Kill Chain
Air combat systems are increasingly being designed with the expectation that communications and sensor networks will be targeted, degraded, or denied. This has led to growing interest in architectures[viii] that can function without persistent connectivity. Swarm logic, dynamic mission recalibration, and AI-enabled data fusion are all being incorporated to enable autonomous systems to continue functioning with limited or intermittent links to command-and-control networks.
Supporting this requires hardened, distributed command-and-control. Tactical data meshes, advanced battle management systems, and alternatives to legacy networks will underpin MUM-T in high-threat zones. AI-enabled mission replanning and decentralised control nodes will keep operations viable when centralised command fails.
Ultimately, resilience planning highlights the enduring value of MUM-T. When autonomy and communications fail, human operators provide the flexibility and judgment needed to adapt. As Major General Kunkel, USAF Director of Force Design and Integration and Wargaming, recently stated in reference to the use of manned platforms,[ix] “All fights collapse... and eventually you end up fixing bayonets.” In high-end conflict, human presence ensures kill chains can be reconstituted under pressure, offering a decisive edge when systems falter and the battle devolves into chaos.
Cost, Mass, and Attritability
The shift towards MUM-T is increasingly driven as much by economic necessity as operational requirement. The rising cost of latest-generation crewed fighters is no longer sustainable under existing force structures, making a doctrinal shift essential. Recent estimates place the unit cost of the U.S. F-47 fighter at approximately $300 million[x], which is roughly three times that of the F-35; target costs for CCA, on the other hand, are about 5–10% of that figure. Without the introduction of CCA and a reimagined approach to force design, air forces risk fielding fleets too small to sustain high-tempo operations.
CCA offer a viable solution by preserving combat mass and flexibility while remaining within budgetary constraints. Designed to be modular, lower-cost, and attritable,[xi] these uncrewed systems are built to enhance the survivability of crewed aircraft, distribute combat power more widely, operate in highly contested environments, and impose greater complexity on adversary targeting.
Sustainment, Scalability, and Agile Employment
For uncrewed systems to deliver operational value at scale, sustainment and logistical support must be integrated into their design[xii] from the outset. This includes considerations such as airframe, components, and systems standardisation, shared support equipment, and simplified maintenance procedures.
In parallel, air forces are exploring alternative launch[xiii] and recovery methods. This includes runway-independent systems, short or vertical take-off capabilities, and air-launch options. While these approaches may reduce payload or endurance, they provide operational flexibility, especially in contested environments where fixed airbases may be targeted.
This use of uncrewed systems also aligns with emerging concepts such as Agile Combat Employment (ACE),[xiv] which seek to disperse forces across multiple, unpredictable locations to reduce vulnerability and maintain tempo under attack.
Interoperability and the Global Market
As multiple air forces pursue the integration of MUM-T concepts, the question of interoperability is becoming increasingly significant. Shared communications standards, data link protocols, and formation control architectures will be essential for coalition operations. Modular payloads, open systems architecture, and exportability are also likely to shape the design and capability of future systems.
The growing international demand for CCA-like platforms that can augment existing fourth- or fifth-generation fleets is demonstrated by the industrial developments highlighted below in the top-tier air powers, but modular and interoperable systems would arguably be even more important for lower-tier powers who might be operating in coalition or in lower threat environments. These systems offer a means of increasing operational capacity without the cost of procuring additional crewed aircraft. In the longer term, this is likely to drive the emergence of a competitive global market, with different suppliers offering compatible and scalable systems[xv] adapted to a variety of missions and threat environments.
Decisions on fleet composition, which will be increasingly complicated by the emerging global imperative for sovereign capability, will have enduring geopolitical ramifications under the rapidly evolving world order.
Global Industrial Developments
NGAD — Leading the Pack
The USAF NGAD programme is structured[xvi] around a baseline of 185 F-47 sixth-generation fighters with over 1000 CCA variants planned to support these as well as the existing fifth-generation fleet.[xvii] The F-47 and the CCA are expected to be operational before 2030. The United States Navy’s (USN) [xviii] NGAD fighter, which is being selected from bids from Boeing and Northrop Grumman, has slightly different mission objectives from the USAF but the two services will likely collaborate on CCA development, at least on standardising components and systems. Cost targets for the USAF and USN range from $3–25 million[xix] for CCA platforms (from single-use to exquisite systems).
In April 2024,[xx] Anduril and General Atomics Aeronautical Systems Inc. (GA-ASI) were selected to produce prototypes for CCA Increment 1. Anduril’s YFQ-44A builds on its modular Fury platform, while GA-ASI’s YFQ-42A evolves from its Gambit family.
USAF investment[xxi] in CCAs continues to grow, with $557 million in FY2025 and a projected $6 billion through 2028. Boeing is advancing its MQ-28A Ghost Bat, developed jointly with the Royal Australian Air Force, and recently tested[xxii] teaming two platforms with an E-7A Wedgetail. Kratos, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman are also investing heavily in autonomous and MUM-T technologies, positioning themselves for future export and increment phases.
Global Combat Air Programme (GCAP) — Interoperable by Default
The GCAP[xxiii], a collaboration between the United Kingdom, Japan, and Italy, aims to deliver a sixth-generation stealth fighter by 2035 alongside a suite of ACPs. The programme seeks to avoid prior inefficiencies and limitations[xxiv] through streamlined and shared governance with the GCAP International Government Organisation (GIGO) and a joint industry venture (BAE Systems, Leonardo, and JAIEC) driving development and allowing “Freedom of Action and Modification.”[xxv] The UK, Japan, and Italy’s combined investment into GCAP is likely to be close to $30 billion.[xxvi] Although ACPs will rely on much of the underlying technologies, their development appears to be independent of these costs.
Although ACPs are fundamental to the initiative, it remains unclear whether the UK, Italy, and Japan will jointly develop these systems under GCAP. The RAF are exploring how best to integrate[xxvii] ACPs[xxviii] with the Tempest with BAE Systems focusing on attritable demonstrators[xxix]. Italy and Japan also plan to field uninhabited systems, though their programmes are less advanced. Japan has been slower to adopt uncrewed systems and are currently in the conceptual[xxx] stages of modelling such integration through Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI). Italy has more experience, operating MQ-9s and developing uncrewed systems through Leonardo. They also have a new joint venture[xxxi] with Türkiye’s Baykar.
The Future Combat Air System (FCAS) — Interoperable by Design
FCAS,[xxxii] a trilateral project between France, Germany, and Spain, follows a similar path. RCs will initially support existing fleets from the mid-2030s[xxxiii] and later integrate with the Next Generation Fighter (NGF) after 2040.[xxxiv] Airbus Germany lead RC[xxxv] development and have produced, with support from MBDA France and Satnus Spain, the stealthy, multi-mission RC Wingman demonstrator. Total FCAS investment contributions have been projected at upwards of €80 billion[xxxvi].
Supporting platforms[xxxvii] like the Eurodrone will offer ISR, comms relay, and launch capabilities. MBDA Germany have developed their Remote Carrier Multidomain Multirole Effector (RCM²), capable of carrying a kinetic and EW payload. France’s Dassault has also committed[xxxviii] to developing a CCA for the Rafale by 2033, ensuring continuity and sovereignty.
Together, GCAP and FCAS signal a European consensus; distributed, autonomous systems will define sixth generation airpower, and it is likely that there will be further cooperation[xxxix] and integration of CCA.
China — Integrated Autonomous Airpower
China is progressing toward a sixth-generation ecosystem focused on stealth, AI, and human-machine integration. A new manned fighter is in development to complement the J-20, while programmes like the FH-97A[xl] aim to deliver CCA-like capabilities for ISR, strike, and electronic warfare. These systems use modular payloads and AI-driven formation operations, suggesting a move toward a comprehensive system-of-systems architecture. China’s focus is on scalable and resilient platforms that support joint, distributed air combat.
Russia — MUM-T and Export Focus
Although Russia is unlikely to develop its next-generation fighter until 2050, it continues to develop a MUM-T capability for its existing fleet of Su-57 with the S-70 Okhotnik[xli] UCAV, a stealth wingman, which has reportedly completed several test flights and demonstrated autonomous strike capability. Russian doctrine increasingly embraces MUM-T, with Okhotnik forming a foundational element of future air force planning.
Türkiye — Indigenous Wingman Programmes
Türkiye[xlii] is advancing the Anka 3 and Kızılelma UCAVs. The Anka 3, a jet-powered flying wing, will partner with the TF Kaan and Hürjet aircraft. Türkiye can also deploy Super Şimşek remote carriers for decoy, jamming, or strike missions.
Baykar’s Kızılelma, first flown in 2022, is a stealthy UCAV with ISR, strike, and air-to-air potential. Future variants include supersonic and naval versions. These platforms reflect Türkiye’s push to develop sovereign MUM-T capabilities tailored to regional needs.
India — Exploratory MUM-T Concepts
India is prioritizing its fifth-gen Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) programme but is also exploring uncrewed strike and teaming concepts. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) in collaboration with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is developing a Combat Air Teaming System (CATS),[xliii] featuring the Warrior loyal wingman. Separately, New Space Research & Technologies are developing a variety of MUM-T capabilities through their Abhimanyu[xliv] platform.
Conclusion: A New Architecture for Air Superiority
The future of air superiority will be shaped not by individual aircraft platforms, but by the ability to integrate manned and unmanned systems into flexible, survivable, and mission-focused formations. There is growing consensus that collaborative uncrewed combat systems will be essential enablers in contested airspace.
These systems are not simply extensions of current capabilities but building blocks for a new operational model in which air forces must maintain tempo, adapt under pressure, and generate combat power without relying on uncontested access or persistent command and control. Achieving this will depend on more than technology alone. Issues of interoperability, sustainment, exportability, and resilience will shape both the operational value and the industrial viability of future systems.
While the approaches taken by individual nations vary, the direction of travel is clear. The next generation of air forces will be built around distributed, adaptive, and integrated force structures capable of absorbing disruption, operating at scale, and maintaining effectiveness under threat. CCA and their next-generation manned platforms are likely to enter service in the 2030s. In this environment, success will be defined not by platform superiority alone, but by the ability to network capabilities, share burden across assets, and respond flexibly to a dynamic and contested battlespace.
It should be noted also that as collaborative combat systems proliferate, air and missile defence must evolve to match a threat landscape defined by scale, speed, and autonomy. Traditional interceptors alone cannot manage swarms of adaptive, low-cost systems. Future defence will require layered, agile, and intelligent networks, combining directed energy, AI-enabled sensor fusion, and cyber-electronic disruption. Success will depend not just on intercepting shooters, but on disrupting kill chains, targeting command nodes, and defending against complexity itself. As MUM-T reshapes offensive airpower, it also demands a fundamental rethink of how airspace is protected across joint and allied domains.
Disclaimer:
The views and opinions expressed in the INSIGHTS publication series are those of the individual contributors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of Rabdan Security & Defense Institute, its affiliated organizations, or any government entity. The content published is intended for informational purposes and reflects the personal perspectives of the authors on various security and defence-related topics.
[i] Air Force Awards Contract for Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) Platform, F-47. (March 2025).
https://www.af.mil/news/article-display/article/4131345/air-force-awards-contract-for-next-generation-air-dominance-ngad-platform-f-47/
[ii] Collaborative Combat Aircraft for Disruptive Operations. Mitchell Institute. (January 2024).
https://www.mitchellaerospacepower.org/app/uploads/2024/01/CCA-Wargame-Rollout-Briefing-FINAL.pdf
[iii] The Significance of Air Superiority: The Ukraine-Russia War. Lt Gen David A. Deptula, USAF (Ret.) (July 2024).
https://www.mitchellaerospacepower.org/app/uploads/2024/07/Ukraine_Control_of_the_-Air_Policy_Paper_50.pdf
[iv] Windows, not Walls: Conceptualizing Air Superiority for Future Wars. War on the Rocks. (September 2024). https://warontherocks.com/2024/09/windows-not-walls-conceptualizing-air-superiority-for-future-wars/
[v] Air & Space Forces Association Warfare Symposium. (March 2025)
https://www.afa.org/agenda/next-generation-air-superiority-how-are-we-going-to-fight/
[vi] UK Royal Air Force: Autonomous Collaborative Platform Strategy. (2024) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/66019fa8f1d3a0666832acfc/RAF_Autonomous_Collaborative_Platform_Strategy.pdf
[vii] Understanding the CCA Edge: Innovators’ Insights. (May 2025)
https://www.mitchellaerospacepower.org/podcast/cca-edge/
[viii] Ibid.
[ix] Air & Space Forces Association Warfare Symposium. (March 2025)
https://www.afa.org/agenda/next-generation-air-superiority-how-are-we-going-to-fight/
[x] Air Force Reveals Range and Inventory Goals for F-47, CCAs. ( May 2025).
https://www.airandspaceforces.com/air-force-reveals-range-and-inventory-goals-for-f-47-ccas/
[xi] Attritable Unmanned Aircraft Systems:Conceptualization and Key Players. DSIAC, DTIC, DOD. (November 2024).
https://dsiac.dtic.mil/state-of-the-art-reports/attritable-unmanned-aircraft-systems-conceptualization-and-key-players/
[xii] Col Mark A. Gunzinger, USAF (ret.) Logistics While Under Attack: Key to a CCA Force Design. (March 2025).
https://www.mitchellaerospacepower.org/app/uploads/2025/03/Logistics-While-Under-Attack-Key-to-a-CCA-Force-Design-WEB.pdf
[xiii] Air & Space Forces Association Warfare Symposium. (March 2025)
https://www.afa.org/agenda/next-generation-air-superiority-how-are-we-going-to-fight/
[xiv] USAF Doctrine. Agile Combat Employment. (August 2022). https://www.doctrine.af.mil/Portals/61/documents/AFDN_1-21/AFDN%201-21%20ACE.pdf
[xv] Understanding the CCA Edge: Innovators’ Insights. (May 2025)
https://www.mitchellaerospacepower.org/podcast/cca-edge/
[xvi] Air Force Reveals Range and Inventory Goals for F-47, CCAs. ( May 2025).
https://www.airandspaceforces.com/air-force-reveals-range-and-inventory-goals-for-f-47-ccas/
[xvii] U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services. (May 2025).
https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/5-20-25-full-transcript.pdf
[xviii] U.S. Navy commences operational testing phase for F/A-XX sixth-generation fighter program. Defence Industry Europe (June 2025).
https://defence-industry.eu/u-s-navy-commences-operational-testing-phase-for-f-a-xx-sixth-generation-fighter-program/
[xix] Attritable Unmanned Aircraft Systems:Conceptualization and Key Players. DSIAC, DTIC, DOD. (November 2024).
https://dsiac.dtic.mil/state-of-the-art-reports/attritable-unmanned-aircraft-systems-conceptualization-and-key-players/
[xx] Congressional Research Service : U.S. Air Force Collaborative Combat Aircraft (CCA). (August 2024).
https://sgp.fas.org/crs/weapons/IF12740.pdf
[xxi] Ibid.
https://sgp.fas.org/crs/weapons/IF12740.pdf
[xxii] Key milestone in development of Australian made combat drone. Australian Government. (June 2025).
https://www.minister.defence.gov.au/media-releases/2025-06-16/key-milestone-development-australian-made-combat-drone
[xxiii] Global Combat Air Programme. UK Parliament. (January 2025)
https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5901/cmselect/cmdfence/598/report.html#
[xxiv] GCAP: an Italian view. European Defence Review. (June 2025).
https://www.edrmagazine.eu/gcap-an-italian-view
[xxv] Future Aviation Capabilities: Government Response. UK Parliament. (March 2025).
https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5901/cmselect/cmdfence/799/report.html
[xxvi] UK Government commitment through mid-2030s amount to GBP 14 billion (https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5901/cmselect/cmdfence/598/report.html); Italian contributions will total over EU 8.5 billion (https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/air-warfare/italy-doubles-gcap-funding-surpassing-8-billion-in-latest-defence-budget)/; Japanese latest annual contribution was set as Yen 127.4 billion and is likely to endure (https://nsbt-japan.com/news/aBmR6HFw9Gs7eYbM9df87050847ae67eef8cba8b3f6a170a?c=aBmR6HFw9Gs7eYbM68f5fdd9a611d7b15e2c1ae05f6ab4cc)
[xxvii] UK Strategic Defence Review. (2025)
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/683d89f181deb72cce2680a5/The_Strategic_Defence_Review_2025_-_Making_Britain_Safer_-_secure_at_home__strong_abroad.pdf
[xxviii] StormShroud arrival marks the future of UK Air Combat Power. RAF. https://www.raf.mod.uk/news/articles/stormshroud-arrival-marks-the-future-of-uk-air-combat-power/
[xxix] BAE Systems’ Reworked, Stealthier Uncrewed Combat Aircraft Concept. TWZ. (February 2024)
https://www.twz.com/air/this-is-bae-systems-reworked-stealthier-uncrewed-combat-aircraft-concept
[xxx] MHI and BAE showcase drones for potential use with GCAP fighter. Japan Times. (October 2024).
https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/10/18/japan/defense-exhibition-gcap-fighter-jet/
[xxxi] Leonardo and Baykar establish joint venture for unmanned technologies. Leonardo. (June 2025).
https://www.leonardo.com/en/press-release-detail/-/detail/16-06-2025-leonardo-and-baykar-establish-joint-venture-for-unmanned-technologies
[xxxii] Deciphering the alphabet soup surrounding the Franco-German-Spanish next generation combat air system of systems. Aerospace Global News. (May 2025).
https://aerospaceglobalnews.com/news/deciphering-the-alphabet-soup-surrounding-the-franco-german-spanish-next-generation-combat-air-system-of-systems/
[xxxiii] Ibid.
[xxxiv] Ibid.
[xxxv] FCAS, a major European defense program marking the transition to the era of collaborative combat. European Defense Review. (July 2023).
https://www.edrmagazine.eu/fcas-a-major-european-defense-program-marking-the-transition-to-the-era-of-collaborative-combat
[xxxvi] BRIEFER: Future Combat Air System (FCAS). Defense and Security Monitor. (June 2023).
https://dsm.forecastinternational.com/2023/06/28/briefer-future-combat-air-system-fcas/#
[xxxvii] Collaborative Platforms and Contested MALE UAVs. IISS. (December 2024)
https://www.iiss.org/research-paper/2024/12/collaborative-platforms-and-contested-male-uavs/
[xxxviii] France’s Upcoming Stealth UCAV Will Enable the Rafale F5 to Penetrate Contested Airspace. Global Defense News. (June 2025)
https://www.armyrecognition.com/news/aerospace-news/2025/frances-upcoming-stealth-ucav-will-enable-the-rafale-f5-to-penetrate-contested-airspace
[xxxix] Collaborative Platforms and Contested MALE UAVs. IISS. (December 2024)
https://www.iiss.org/research-paper/2024/12/collaborative-platforms-and-contested-male-uavs/
[xl] China’s ‘loyal wingman’ drones open new front in military competition with US. FT. (December 2024).
https://www.ft.com/content/5687a223-6115-4cbc-86d2-2e17aaa54dc1
[xli] This Is Our Most Detailed Look At Russia’s S-70 Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle To Date (Updated). TWZ. (October 2021).
https://www.twz.com/42627/this-is-our-most-detailed-look-at-russias-s-70-unmanned-combat-air-vehicle-to-date
[xlii] Collaborative Platforms and Contested MALE UAVs. IISS. (December 2024)
https://www.iiss.org/research-paper/2024/12/collaborative-platforms-and-contested-male-uavs/
[xliii] CATS Warrior. Indian Defence Research Wing. (May 2025).
https://idrw.org/cats-warrior-indias-cost-effective-solution-for-neutralizing-enemy-air-defenses/
[xliv] India’s Strides in MUM-T Technology Showcased Through Abhimanyu Drone. Bharat Shakti. (June 2024).
https://bharatshakti.in/indias-strides-in-mum-t-technology-showcased-through-abhimanyu-drone/
