Introduction
Fake news has become a defining feature of the digital age, directly fueling hate speech and extremist ideologies. In recent years, there has been a surge in the proliferation of fake news, particularly around information related to the Covid-19 pandemic[1] and natural disasters.[2]; [3] Recent examples demonstrate how misinformation exacerbates societal divisions and contributes to violence.[4]; [5]; [6] This commentary explores the symbiotic relationship between fake news and extremism and proposes unified strategies to combat these interconnected threats.[7]
The Symbiotic Relationship Between Fake News and Extremism: Definition and Impact of Fake News
Fake news, which will be defined here as deliberate misinformation aimed at misleading audiences, fosters distrust in institutions and amplifies extremist narratives. Most people access fake news through social media. A study from 2020 found that 88% of individuals viewing fake news did so on social media platforms.[8] Another source of fake news is in search engines such as Google, where fake news channels can use search optimization tactics to increase the visibility of their platforms. Members of the public with low media literacy are particularly vulnerable to believing both deliberate misinformation and low-quality information when it is placed at the top of engine responses.[9] One of the most pernicious forms of fake news are articles that combine factual and fake information, which decreases the probability that consumers will correctly identify which content is false.[10]
Like extremist content, fake news attempts to launder false and exclusionary ideas under a veneer of credibility. Fake news organizations often design their content to mimic reliable information sources, including websites such as abcnew.com.co, DC Gazette, InfoWars, The Boston Tribune, and more.[11] These organizations’ attempts to present fake news as reliable information can hinder even conscientious information consumers in their efforts to detect false content. Indeed, fake news often has the same impact as online extremist content, such as radicalizing adherents, rationalizing dangerous behavior, and encouraging self-isolation. Both tend to target marginalized communities, oversimplify complex real-world phenomena into “us vs. them” scenarios, and magnify preexisting discriminatory attitudes.[12]
Radicalization Through Disinformation
Radicalization is deeply influenced by fake news, as individuals in echo chambers consume content that reinforces their extremist worldviews. This self-perpetuating cycle can be exceedingly difficult to break. There is evidence that modern lone-actor terrorists including Peter Mangs, Anders Breivik, and Dylann Roof relied on the internet for information and legitimization of violence. Mangs and Breivik committed racially-motivated mass murders in Sweden and Norway, respectively. Roof killed 9 in a mass shooting at a Black church in Charleston, South Carolina.[13] The connection is particularly strong between social media disinformation and acts of terrorism.[14]
Corrupt actors can manipulate human psychology to disperse their message, and ultimately, to acquire more adherents to fringe viewpoints. One study found that the psychological strain associated with being bombarded by information increased the probability of social media users’ sharing fake news by reducing their discernment.[15] Low discernment is also associated with posts containing evocative emotional content, which increases the probability of the content being believed and shared.[16]
Given the volume of content on social media platforms, it is easy to imagine that many individuals are unintentionally propagating fake news narratives. Online disinformation and fake news frequently take the following forms:
- Fabricated histories, particularly in the form of groups weaponizing false historical narratives to justify violence. This was recently demonstrated by ethnic violence in Myanmar stoked by misinformation on Facebook.[17]
- Exaggerated or radical interpretations of actual news events, intended to emotionally engage and polarize readers. Those who use misleading images are also in this category. A recent example of this is social media accounts strategically using images from old military exercises and video footage from Libya in 2011 in a way that implied they were images from the Russia-Ukraine war. This is done to manipulate conflict narratives and generate attention online.[18]
- Extremist figures manipulating religious interpretations to radicalize followers. This has been seen in attacks by Protestant Christian identifying gangs (“Narco-Pentecostals”) on Catholic religious institutions in Rio de Janeiro.[19] For example, one such Narco-Pentecostal gang led by Álvaro Malaquias Santa Rosa has control of five slum neighborhoods (favelas) and ordered all Catholic churches in their territory to close in the summer of 2024. [20]
- Pseudo-science, particularly science that preaches rejecting trusted national or international medical institutions. This phenomenon is demonstrated in the proliferation of astrology as an alternative to psychiatric treatment and use of crystals (such as lapis lazuli, pyrite, and amethyst) to cure various physical or psychological ailments.[21]
- Anti-government actors who engage in conspiracy theorizing and propagandizing. A recent example of this was the belief that the U.S. disaster relief agency FEMA would not serve individuals with specific political leanings.[22] These rumors were sparked in response to a single FEMA employee telling employees to ignore serving houses with Republican Party-affiliated political signs. The employee was fired.[23]
There is significant overlap between these categories. A designation in one category should not be treated as mutually-exclusive. Overall, it is contended that the most prevalent of these threats is exaggerated and radical interpretations of actual events, as the combination of truth and misinformation can be difficult for even conscientious media consumers to parse. Due to the globalized nature of digital media, democratic nations that are less willing to regulate social media and other internet spaces may be more vulnerable to this form of disinformation than nations that engage in such regulations. Despite its lower prevalence, law enforcement must focus in particular on the threat posed by anti-government and extremist misinformation actors. While law enforcement often lacks the ability or mandate to prosecute pseudo-truths, the potential of anti-government extremism to transform into threats to government institutions and citizens is a threat worth monitoring. Law enforcement should maintain awareness of salient fake news that can fuel violence and crime.
Challenges in Countering These Threats
Both fake news and extremism exploit fear, anger, and distrust, which has the effect of undermining public confidence in local, national, and international institutions. Their mutual amplification ensures their persistence unless jointly tackled. There are numerous challenges to adequately responding to this threat.
First, large portions of adults have never had media literacy education.[24] Other studies have found that media literacy is crucial to countering online mis- and disinformation.[25] Many fake news and extremist sources can produce high-quality content, hindering a reader’s ability to discern fact and fiction. Government agencies must actively counter false narratives to discourage citizens from crowdsourcing facts from social media feed.
Second, perceived or actual bias in traditional, mainstream media outlets delegitimizes these platforms, increasing the appeal of fake news and extremist content. The traditional news media industry is undergoing significant changes as the world’s media consumption patterns have shifted in the digital era.[26] Fake news and disinformation actors fill in the gap left by these organizations while they transition. Further, democratizing platforms such as Substack and podcast hosting applications allow independent journalists to gain prominence while circumventing safeguards in traditional media outlets. While there are plenty of accurate news sources on these platforms, it can be difficult for consumers to discern which accounts are legitimate.
Finally, anti-extremism and information campaigns can be counterproductive if not executed properly. For example, the U.K.’s PREVENT program is a paradigmatic case of a failed preventing/countering violence extremism policy due to alienating and targeting Muslim communities.[27]; [28] If implemented in an insensitive manner, these campaigns can further alienate the very groups they seek to persuade out of disseminating or agreeing with fake news.[29] This can increase the salience of fake news, rather than cultivating resilience.
Consequences of Separate Responses
In some cases, fake news is itself extremist content designed to polarize and radicalize its readers. Addressing fake news without considering its extremist implications risks perpetuating cycles of radicalization and misinformation. Essentially, a holistic response to mis- and disinformation requires engaging in counter extremism.
Strategies for Combating Fake News and Extremism
1. Media Literacy
Education initiatives should focus on discerning credible sources from fake news.[30] Emphasis should be placed on how to access official sources of information while discouraging using social media as a source of news. Age, language, and disability accessible media literacy education should be available at the elementary, middle, and high school levels. Colleges and universities should have their librarians host media literacy training initiatives that are available both to students and the community at large. Officials should participate in these educational meetings to answer questions from the community and contribute their knowledge about official news resources. Successful initiatives include the US Department of Homeland Security’s Know2Protect campaign[31] and New York state’s Medial Literacy Toolkit for Educators.[32]
2. Platform Accountability
Social media companies must implement stricter measures to monitor and remove extremist content and misinformation. This includes sanctioning accounts that repeatedly publish fake news and extremism; Facebook alone has removed 2.2 billion fake profiles since Q1 of 2019.[33] Social media companies must invest in both artificial intelligence and human content moderators, particularly in non-English languages, as these tend to have disproportionately low moderation. As previously discussed, emotionally laden content is more likely to be believed and disseminated by social media users.[34] Algorithms should prioritize accuracy over sensationalism. One example of platform accountability includes the UNESCO/Meta Information Literacy campaign.[35]
3. Community-Based Interventions
In addition to community educational facilities hosting media literacy programs, there are numerous in-person measures that can increase community resilience to fake news. Dialogue-driven programs can counter extremist narratives and foster resilience within communities.[36] Community leaders such as faith leaders, politicians, athletes, and musicians can also encourage acceptance of others and critical thinking skills, both of which boost resilience. Matteo Bergamini’s platform Shout Out UK is one example of a successful community-driven response to misinformation.[37]
4. Policy Recommendations
Legislation targeting purveyors of fake news and extremist propaganda is essential to creating a safer digital ecosystem. Local and national legislatures should also focus on funding community-based interventions and media literacy initiatives to bolster local and national resilience to fake news. Governments can also engage in counter-messaging strategies to help invalidate extremism and disinformation.[38] Successful policy solutions to online misinformation include Singapore’s Scam Analytics and Technical Intervention System (SATIS)[39] and Taiwan’s Network Information Center.[40]
As the previous section shows, there are numerous examples of influential and effective anti-misinformation campaigns. While the precise misinformation threat landscape is unique to each country, nations should seek programs in similar nations (geographically, legal tradition, government type, total land mass, etc.) and use this as a baseline for their own programs. Any implemented program should engage in rigorous self-analysis to maximize improvements over time domestically and for other nations that may seek to implement such a model.
Conclusion
Fake news and extremism represent intertwined threats that cannot be addressed in isolation. Despite the barriers to countering fake news, there are several evidence-based solutions that community stakeholders can promote. Institutions like Rabdan RSDI must lead in developing comprehensive strategies to tackle these challenges, promoting a society that values trust, critical thinking, and unity.
Disclaimer:
The views and opinions expressed in the INSIGHTS publication series are those of the individual contributors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of Rabdan Security & Defense Institute, its affiliated organizations, or any government entity. The content published is intended for informational purposes and reflects the personal perspectives of the authors on various security and defence-related topics.
References
Alistair Coleman and Shayan Sardarizadeh. 2022. “Ukraine Conflict: Many Misleading Images Have Been Shared Online.” BBC News, February 24, 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/60513452.
Aslett, Kevin, Zeve Sanderson, William Godel, Nathaniel Persily, Jonathan Nagler, and Joshua A. Tucker. 2024. “Online Searches to Evaluate Misinformation Can Increase Its Perceived Veracity.” Nature 625 (7995): 548–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06883-y.
Bateman, Jon, and Dean Jackson. 2024. “Countering Disinformation Effectively: An Evidence-Based Policy Guide.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. January 31, 2024. https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/01/countering-disinformation-effectively-an-evidence-based-policy-guide?lang=en.
BBC. 2017. “Rohingya Crisis: Suu Kyi Says ‘Fake News Helping Terrorists.’” BBC News, September 6, 2017. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41170570.
Beauvais, Catherine. 2022. “Fake News: Why Do We Believe It?” Joint Bone Spine 89 (4): 105371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2022.105371.
Bergamini, Matteo. 2025. “DISMISSing Disinformation: Lessons from a Groundbreaking Digital Media Literacy Campaign – EDMO.” European Digital Media Observatory (blog). January 14, 2025. https://edmo.eu/blog/dismissing-disinformation-lessons-from-a-groundbreaking-digital-media-literacy-campaign/.
Bermes, Alena. 2021. “Information Overload and Fake News Sharing: A Transactional Stress Perspective Exploring the Mitigating Role of Consumers’ Resilience during COVID-19.” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 61 (July). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102555.
Booth, Emily, Jooyoung Lee, Marian-Andrei Rizoiu, and Hany Farid. 2024. “Conspiracy, Misinformation, Radicalisation: Understanding the Online Pathway to Indoctrination and Opportunities for Intervention.” Journal of Sociology 60 (2): 440–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/14407833241231756.
Boston University. 2024. “Media Literacy Skills Important to Counter Disinformation, Survey Says.” Boston University College of Communication. January 24, 2024. https://www.bu.edu/com/articles/media-literacy-skills-important-to-counter-disinformation-survey-says/.
C., Adele, Jeremy Rasmussen, Rohullah Azizi, Stephanie Yanta, Zara Perumal, Adrianna George, Cassandra Schuler, et al. 2024. “Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) on Criminal and Illicit Activities.” US Department of Homeland Security. https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2024-10/24_0927_ia_aep-impact-ai-on-criminal-and-illicit-activities.pdf.
CBS News. 2024. “FEMA Employee Fired for Telling Workers to Ignore Homes of Trump Supporters during Hurricane Relief Efforts - CBS News.” CBS News. November 10, 2024. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/fema-employee-fired-telling-workers-to-ignore-trump-supporters-homes-hurricane-relief/.
Darrell M. West. 2017. “How to Combat Fake News and Disinformation.” Brookings. December 18, 2017. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/how-to-combat-fake-news-and-disinformation/.
———. 2024. “Fighting Hurricane Misinformation Requires Aggressive Pushback.” Brookings. October 9, 2024. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/fighting-hurricane-misinformation-requires-aggressive-pushback/.
Devitt, James. 2023. “Evaluating the Truthfulness of Fake News Through Online Searches Increases the Chances of Believing Misinformation.” New York University. December 20, 2023. http://www.nyu.edu/content/nyu/en/about/news-publications/news/2023/december/evaluating-the-truthfulness-of-fake-news-through-online-searches.
Dixon, Stacy Jo. 2025. “Facebook Fake Account Deletion per Quarter 2024.” Statista. February 6, 2025. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1013474/facebook-fake-account-removal-quarter/.
EFSAS. 2021. “The Role of Fake News in Fueling Hate Speech and Extremism Online; Promoting Adequate Measures for Tackling the Phenomenon.” European Foundation for South Asian Studies. June 2021. https://www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/the-role-of-fake-news-in-fueling-hate-speech-and-extremism-online/.
Elisabeth Braw, Karen Monaghan, Judy Pal, Christopher Rodriguez, Alex Townsend-Drake, and Jessica White. 2023. “Mis-and Disinformation: Extremism in the Digital Age.” CTPN Reports. Counter Terrorisms Preparedness Network. https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/2023-12/CTPN%20Report%202023%20-%20Mis-and%20Disinformation%2C%20Extremism%20in%20the%20Digital%20Age%20%28Single%20Pages%29.pdf
Fieldstadt, Elisha. 2016. “Don’t Get Fooled by These Fake News Sites.” CBS News. December 2, 2016. https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/dont-get-fooled-by-these-fake-news-sites/.
GCTF. 2013. “Good Practices on Community Engagement and Community-Oriented Policing as Tools to Counter Violent Extremism.” Global Counterterrorism Forum. https://www.thegctf.org/documents/10162/159885/13aug09_en_good+practices+on+community+engagement+and+community-oriented+policing.pdf.
GCTF. 2014. “Good Practices on Women and Countering Violent Extremism.” Global Counterterrorism Forum. https://www.thegctf.org/Portals/1/Documents/Framework%20Documents/GCTF%20Good%20Practices%20on%20Women%20and%20CVE.pdf?ver=2016-03-29-134644-853
Government of Singapore. 2024. “AI Scams Are Everywhere, so Here’s How You Can Outsmart Them.” Government. GovTech Singapore. November 25, 2024. https://www.tech.gov.sg/media/technews/ai-scams-are-everywhere-so-heres-how-you-can-outsmart-them/.
Hochul, Kathy. 2025. “Governor Hochul Releases New York’s First Media Literacy Toolkit for Educators.” Government. Website of the Governor of New York State. January 23, 2025. https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-hochul-releases-new-yorks-first-media-literacy-toolkit-educators.
Hung, William. 2024. “Media Literacy Education: Taiwan’s Key to Combating Disinformation.” Global Taiwan Institute. March 6, 2024. https://globaltaiwan.org/2024/03/media-literacy-education-taiwans-key-to-combating-disinformation/.
J. Scott Brennen, Felix Simon, Philip N. Howard, and Rasmus Kleis Nielsen. 2020. “Types, Sources, and Claims of COVID-19 Misinformation.” RISJ Factsheets. Oxford: Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/types-sources-and-claims-covid-19-misinformation.
Lebo Diseko and Julia Carneiro. 2024. “Rio’s ‘narco-Pentecostal’ Gangs Use Religion to Dominate Favelas.” BBC News. December 21, 2024. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c86w44x083zo.
Media Literacy Now. 2022. “National Survey Finds Most U.S. Adults Have Not Had Media Literacy Education in High School.” Media Literacy Now. September 7, 2022. https://medialiteracynow.org/nationalsurvey2022/.
Metin, Duygu, Jale Cakiroglu, and Gulsen Leblebicioglu. 2017. “Perceptions of Eighth Graders Concerning the Aim, Effectiveness, and Scientific Basis of Pseudoscience: The Case of Crystal Healing.” Research in Science Education 50 (December):175–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-017-9685-4.
Mølmen, Guri Nordtorp, and Jacob Aasland Ravndal. 2023. “Mechanisms of Online Radicalisation: How the Internet Affects the Radicalisation of Extreme-Right Lone Actor Terrorists.” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 15 (4): 463–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2021.1993302.
Phillips, Tom. 2024. “Rio’s ‘Narco-Pentecostal’ Gangs Accused of Ordering Catholic Churches to Close.” The Guardian, July 10, 2024, sec. World news. https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jul/10/brazil-gang-boss-drug-trafficking-closing-churches.
Piazza, James A. 2022. “Fake News: The Effects of Social Media Disinformation on Domestic Terrorism.” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict: Pathways toward Terrorism and Genocide 15 (1): 55–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2021.1895263.
Roberts-Ingleson, Elise M., and Wesley S. McCann. 2023. “The Link between Misinformation and Radicalisation: Current Knowledge and Areas for Future Inquiry.” Perspectives on Terrorism 17 (1): 36–49. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27209215.
Shayan Sardarizadeh, Merlyn Thomas, and Adam Robinson. 2023. “Turkey Earthquake: The False Images Shared Online.” BBC News, February 8, 2023. https://www.bbc.com/news/64557407.
SPLC. 2023. “Conspiracy Propagandists.” Southern Poverty Law Center. 2023. https://www.splcenter.org/resources/extremist-files/conspiracy-propagandists/.
Thomas, Paul. 2010. “Failed and Friendless: The UK’s ‘Preventing Violent Extremism’ Programme.” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 12 (3): 442–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-856X.2010.00422.x.
Joel Busher and Lee Jerome. 2020. “Britain’s Prevent Strategy: Always Changing, Always the Same?” In The Prevent Duty in Education: Impact, Enactment and Implications, 11–31. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45559-0_2.
Tokita, Christopher K, Kevin Aslett, William P Godel, Zeve Sanderson, Joshua A Tucker, Jonathan Nagler, Nathaniel Persily, and Richard Bonneau. 2024. “Measuring Receptivity to Misinformation at Scale on a Social Media Platform.” PNAS Nexus 3 (10). https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae396.
UNESCO. 2024. “UNESCO and Meta Launch a Social Media Campaign to Foster User’s Resilience to Online Harmful Content on the Occasion of the 2023 Global Media and Information Literacy Week.” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. January 11, 2024. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-and-meta-launch-social-media-campaign-foster-users-resilience-online-harmful-content-occasion.
[1] Beauvais, Catherine. “Fake News: Why Do We Believe It?” Joint Bone Spine 89, no. 4 (July 2022): 105371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2022.105371.
[2] Shayan Sardarizadeh, Merlyn Thomas, and Adam Robinson. “Turkey Earthquake: The False Images Shared Online.” BBC News, February 8, 2023. https://www.bbc.com/news/64557407.
[3] Darrell M. West. “Fighting Hurricane Misinformation Requires Aggressive Pushback.” Brookings, October 9, 2024. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/fighting-hurricane-misinformation-requires-aggressive-pushback/.
[4] EFSAS. “The Role of Fake News in Fueling Hate Speech and Extremism Online; Promoting Adequate Measures for Tackling the Phenomenon.” European Foundation for South Asian Studies, June 2021. https://www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/the-role-of-fake-news-in-fueling-hate-speech-and-extremism-online/.
[5] Roberts-Ingleson, Elise M., and Wesley S. McCann. “The Link between Misinformation and Radicalisation: Current Knowledge and Areas for Future Inquiry.” Perspectives on Terrorism 17, no. 1 (March 2023): 36–49. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27209215.
[6] Booth, Emily, Jooyoung Lee, Marian-Andrei Rizoiu, and Hany Farid. “Conspiracy, Misinformation, Radicalisation: Understanding the Online Pathway to Indoctrination and Opportunities for Intervention.” Journal of Sociology 60, no. 2 (June 1, 2024): 440–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/14407833241231756.
[7] Tokita, Christopher K, Kevin Aslett, William P Godel, Zeve Sanderson, Joshua A Tucker, Jonathan Nagler, Nathaniel Persily, and Richard Bonneau. “Measuring Receptivity to Misinformation at Scale on a Social Media Platform.” PNAS Nexus 3, no. 10 (October 1, 2024). https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae396.
[8] J. Scott Brennen, Felix Simon, Philip N. Howard, and Rasmus Kleis Nielsen. “Types, Sources, and Claims of COVID-19 Misinformation.” RISJ Factsheets. Oxford: Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, April 7, 2020. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/types-sources-and-claims-covid-19-misinformation.
[9] Devitt, James. “Evaluating the Truthfulness of Fake News Through Online Searches Increases the Chances of Believing Misinformation.” New York University, December 20, 2023. http://www.nyu.edu/content/nyu/en/about/news-publications/news/2023/december/evaluating-the-truthfulness-of-fake-news-through-online-searches.
[10] Brennen et al., 2020. “Types, Sources, and Claims…”
[11] Fieldstadt, Elisha. “Don’t Get Fooled by These Fake News Sites.” CBS News, December 2, 2016. https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/dont-get-fooled-by-these-fake-news-sites/.
[12] Elisabeth Braw, Karen Monaghan, Judy Pal, Christopher Rodriguez, Alex Townsend-Drake, and Jessica White. “Mis-and Disinformation: Extremism in the Digital Age.” CTPN Reports. Counter Terrorisms Preparedness Network, 2023. https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/2023-12/CTPN%20Report%202023%20-%20Mis-and%20Disinformation%2C%20Extremism%20in%20the%20Digital%20Age%20%28Single%20Pages%29.pdf
[13] Mølmen, Guri Nordtorp, and Jacob Aasland Ravndal. “Mechanisms of Online Radicalisation: How the Internet Affects the Radicalisation of Extreme-Right Lone Actor Terrorists.” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 15, no. 4 (October 2, 2023): 463–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2021.1993302.
[14] Piazza, James A. “Fake News: The Effects of Social Media Disinformation on Domestic Terrorism.” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict: Pathways toward Terrorism and Genocide 15, no. 1 (2022): 55–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2021.1895263.
[15] Bermes, Alena. “Information Overload and Fake News Sharing: A Transactional Stress Perspective Exploring the Mitigating Role of Consumers’ Resilience during COVID-19.” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 61 (July 1, 2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102555..
[16] Aslett, Kevin, Zeve Sanderson, William Godel, Nathaniel Persily, Jonathan Nagler, and Joshua A. Tucker. “Online Searches to Evaluate Misinformation Can Increase Its Perceived Veracity.” Nature 625, no. 7995 (January 2024): 548–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06883-y.
[17] BBC. “Rohingya Crisis: Suu Kyi Says ‘Fake News Helping Terrorists.’” BBC News, September 6, 2017. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41170570.
[18] Alistair Coleman and Shayan Sardarizadeh. “Ukraine Conflict: Many Misleading Images Have Been Shared Online.” BBC News, February 24, 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/60513452.
[19] Lebo Diseko and Julia Carneiro. “Rio’s ‘narco-Pentecostal’ Gangs Use Religion to Dominate Favelas.” BBC News, December 21, 2024. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c86w44x083zo.
[20] Phillips, Tom. “Rio’s ‘Narco-Pentecostal’ Gangs Accused of Ordering Catholic Churches to Close.” The Guardian, July 10, 2024, sec. World news. https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jul/10/brazil-gang-boss-drug-trafficking-closing-churches.
[21] Metin, Duygu, Jale Cakiroglu, and Gulsen Leblebicioglu. “Perceptions of Eighth Graders Concerning the Aim, Effectiveness, and Scientific Basis of Pseudoscience: The Case of Crystal Healing.” Research in Science Education 50 (December 1, 2017): 175–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-017-9685-4.
[22] SPLC. “Conspiracy Propagandists.” Southern Poverty Law Center, 2023. https://www.splcenter.org/resources/extremist-files/conspiracy-propagandists/.
[23] CBS News. “FEMA Employee Fired for Telling Workers to Ignore Homes of Trump Supporters during Hurricane Relief Efforts - CBS News.” CBS News, November 10, 2024. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/fema-employee-fired-telling-workers-to-ignore-trump-supporters-homes-hurricane-relief/.
[24] Media Literacy Now. “National Survey Finds Most U.S. Adults Have Not Had Media Literacy Education in High School.” Media Literacy Now, September 7, 2022. https://medialiteracynow.org/nationalsurvey2022/.
[25] Boston University. “Media Literacy Skills Important to Counter Disinformation, Survey Says.” Boston University College of Communication, January 24, 2024. https://www.bu.edu/com/articles/media-literacy-skills-important-to-counter-disinformation-survey-says/.
[26] Darrell M. West. “How to Combat Fake News and Disinformation.” Brookings, December 18, 2017. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/how-to-combat-fake-news-and-disinformation/.
[27] Thomas, Paul. “Britain’s Prevent Strategy: Always Changing, Always the Same?” In The Prevent Duty in Education: Impact, Enactment and Implications, edited by Joel Busher and Lee Jerome, 11–31. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45559-0_2.
[28] Thomas, Paul. “Failed and Friendless: The UK’s ‘Preventing Violent Extremism’ Programme.” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 12, no. 3 (August 1, 2010): 442–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-856X.2010.00422.x.
[29] GCTF. “Good Practices on Women and Countering Violent Extremism.” Global Counterterrorism Forum, 2014. https://www.thegctf.org/Portals/1/Documents/Framework%20Documents/GCTF%20Good%20Practices%20on%20Women%20and%20CVE.pdf?ver=2016-03-29-134644-853
[30] EFSAS, 2021. "The Role of Fake News…"
[31] C., Adele, Jeremy Rasmussen, Rohullah Azizi, Stephanie Yanta, Zara Perumal, Adrianna George, Cassandra Schuler, et al. “Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) on Criminal and Illicit Activities.” US Department of Homeland Security, 2024. https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2024-10/24_0927_ia_aep-impact-ai-on-criminal-and-illicit-activities.pdf.
[32] Hochul, Kathy. “Governor Hochul Releases New York’s First Media Literacy Toolkit for Educators.” Government. Website of the Governor of New York State, January 23, 2025. https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-hochul-releases-new-yorks-first-media-literacy-toolkit-educators.
[33] Dixon, Stacy Jo. “Facebook Fake Account Deletion per Quarter 2024.” Statista, February 6, 2025. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1013474/facebook-fake-account-removal-quarter/.
[34] Aslett et al., 2024. “Online searches to evaluate…”
[35] UNESCO. “UNESCO and Meta Launch a Social Media Campaign to Foster User’s Resilience to Online Harmful Content on the Occasion of the 2023 Global Media and Information Literacy Week.” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, January 11, 2024. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-and-meta-launch-social-media-campaign-foster-users-resilience-online-harmful-content-occasion.
[36] GCTF. “Good Practices on Community Engagement and Community-Oriented Policing as Tools to Counter Violent Extremism.” Global Counterterrorism Forum, 2013. https://www.thegctf.org/documents/10162/159885/13aug09_en_good+practices+on+community+engagement+and+community-oriented+policing.pdf.
[37] Bergamini, Matteo. “DISMISSing Disinformation: Lessons from a Groundbreaking Digital Media Literacy Campaign – EDMO.” European Digital Media Observatory (blog), January 14, 2025. https://edmo.eu/blog/dismissing-disinformation-lessons-from-a-groundbreaking-digital-media-literacy-campaign/.
[38] Bateman, Jon, and Dean Jackson. “Countering Disinformation Effectively: An Evidence-Based Policy Guide.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, January 31, 2024. https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/01/countering-disinformation-effectively-an-evidence-based-policy-guide?lang=en.
[39] Government of Singapore. “AI Scams Are Everywhere, so Here’s How You Can Outsmart Them.” Government. GovTech Singapore, November 25, 2024. https://www.tech.gov.sg/media/technews/ai-scams-are-everywhere-so-heres-how-you-can-outsmart-them/.
[40] Hung, William. “Media Literacy Education: Taiwan’s Key to Combating Disinformation.” Global Taiwan Institute, March 6, 2024. https://globaltaiwan.org/2024/03/media-literacy-education-taiwans-key-to-combating-disinformation/.
